Drugs and Alcohol in the Workplace

Use of Drugs and Alcohol in the Workplace {draw:frame} {draw:frame} Figure 2 79% of binge drinkers are members of the workforce (Drug-Free Workplace) {draw:frame} {draw:frame} Drug and/or Alcohol Use Seriously Threatens Organizations {draw:frame} Excessive absenteeism, which holds a significantly percentage of occurrences of drug users as cited above, costs an organization lower productivity, damaged moral and consequently lower product quality. The US Dept of Labor reports that annually, 500 million work days are lost solely due to alcoholism. In addition to absenteeism lowering moral, workplace theft is an experienced and related problem. Approximately 18% of cocaine users steal at work, from either the employer or their co-workers (Facts for Employers). Programs Focus on Testing to Reduce or Eliminate These Problems Reasons For and Methods of Drug Testing in the Workplace Typical drug screens detect the presence of several drugs in the body. Although tests can be specifically designed, the most typical tests are designed to detect alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, heroin, marijuana, methamphetamines, morphine, opiates and PCP (Gottlieb). In addition to the above list of common drugs, tests can be designed to detect the use of prescription medications often usedfor recreational use. In many cases, such as the MUST Program, the consequences of positive test results often result in immediate suspension or permanent discharge (Policy; XXXX, Interview). Opposition to Drug Testing Conclusion Although not a position embraced by the American Civil Liberties Union and other various opponents, the use of drugs and alcohol in the work place has been reported to be rampant and dangerous. It is a multi-billion dollar problem to all organizations, of all sized and within all industries. The concerns associated with workplace drug use are financial, physical and safety issues. Summary Since the 1970’s, drug use in the workplace has become not only common, but rampant. The annual financial impact to the business world associated with this problematic use has beencalculated to be in the hundreds of billions of dollars. The fiscal consequences of this behavior dramatically reduce the bottom line profit of any affected organization. Higher than average insurance rates are commonplace to organizations encountering this issue, which reduces the profits for all shareholders. Certain industries are more susceptible to drug use than others. They are also the industries that realize higher safety issues and encounter more dangerous workplace conditions. Construction and manufacturing are two industries affected more than most. The Department of Labor, citing examples of dramatic results, reported that due to the implementation of comprehensive prevention programs, many companies had a turn-around in incidents and related costs. They used examples of companies ranging in size of a small local plumbing company in Washington DC to the large international group, CSX Transportation Corporation. The companies were reported to have all benefited in many ways, from drastically reduced positive test results to reduced insurance costs or ancillary problems that are inevitable with these problems. It is further suggested that drug use in the workplace can be prevented (elaws). Preventing these costly behaviors would only increase overall safety in the workplace and result in overall higher profits for the shareholders. Although deemed by opponents to be an expensive course of action, especially to smaller organizations with limited resources, employee drug testing is commonly believed to be quite effective at combating workplace drug use, thereby promoting a potentially safer worksite and a higher profit for the organization. The cost of the prevention is well worth the effort. Recommendations Appendix A Primary Research – Interview XXXX, Vice President of XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX _Do you feel the use of drugs and/or alcohol are common in your industry? Absolutely. We have a high ratio of young workers, from their mid-twenties to mid-forties, who typically are drawn to this field. These are guys who you might find at the end of a bar any given night, or might be a once occasional drug user who went bad. What is the financial impact to this industry-wide problem? Most of all, we are saddled with high insurance rates, specifically liability and Workers Compensation rates. There is a formula for determi ning rates, and those rates are based on experience modifiers, among other things. Guys who use at work in our industry are an accident waiting to happen. You can’t be safe on a construction site while you are intoxicated or high. Is the problem rampant in your company? We are pretty lucky. We haven’t had much of a problem in our company. Most of the men we have with us are family men, more concerned with going home after work and spending time with their families. They may enjoy a beer or two from time to time, but are not the kind of group who gets their paycheck and disappears for a few days. Being in this vulnerable industry, how do you combat the potential employee use of drugs and/or alcohol in your workplace? _ Like I said, we have a good group of guys working for us. But we hire smart. We screen our guys through a drug test and extensive referrals. A lot of our workforce recommends their family or friends to us as well. Are you contractually obligated to drug test? In some cases, yes. Several of the big General Contractors in the area, such as Turner, O’Neal, they all have a section in their standard contract requiring a written safety and drug-free program. Also, being union, we are all required to tet once a year, even management. What are your procedures for drug testing? We prescreen test, and random test throughout the year. Annual physicals and accident testing isn’t uncommon. We send the guys to Kroll, through the MUST program. What do you test for? The typical, marijuana, cocaine, meth, etc. We don’t typically test for alcohol unless there is a problem and we need to protect ourselves. How do your employees feel about this policy? What are the consequences of positive test results? We have the right to terminate immediately. Unfortunately, we have exercised that right in the past. Usually, though, if we send a guy to the clinic for an unannounced test, and he knows he is dirty, we usually don’t see him again. But once again, the majority of our guys have been with us for a while, and we know them well, so it hasn’t been too much of a problem. Appendix B Primary Research – Interview _Do you feel the use of drugs and/or alcohol are common in your industry? _ Unfortunately yes. Construction has always had this problem. What are the specific concerns associated with this problem? _ Most importantly are the safety concerns. Someone using drugs could potentially cause the loss of life of him or other guys around him. We deal with a lot of equipment that can be hazardous under the best of conditions, and we need to have our faculties around us. Are there other costs or consequences that are a concern? There sure are. High Workers Comp rates, high liability rates, high cost of equipment that could be damaged due to miss-use, these are just some of the costs. That is why we have such a comprehensive drug policy. Does having a drug-free workforce help you in the industry? Sure. We are known as a safety conscience company, and our EMR rating proves it. Plus, some of the places where we do work won’t let us onsite without one. Motor City Casino, General Motors, Henry Ford Healthcare Systems, they all require written drug-free policies in our safety manual. Are the costs incurred due to your drug testing policy fiscally efficient? Yes, very much so. To send a guy in for a test is a heck of a lot cheaper than dealing with injuries or lawsuits. How do your employees feel about this policy? The ones who don’t like it are the ones who don’t last too long. What are the consequences of a positive test result? We have been pretty lucky in that regard. We haven’t had too much of a problem. But I will say, if a guy shows up on a jobsite high or drunk, the foreman or the other laborers will toss him out. One guy we sent to the clinic for a random test seemed nervous about it. He left the jobsite but never went to the clinic. He just quit and never came back. He was only with us for a few months by that time, and we were glad he never returned. Appendix C Primary Research – Interview Ms. Wendy Richardson, MUST Program Administrator How long has the MUST Program been around? Since 1988. We were the first in the XXXX Area. What is your most important focus? Primarily workplace safety, with drug-free workplace policies. _What is your _circle of industries? We have several unions and trade associations in our membership. We also have a lot of Owners such as Ford, GM, Chrysler, DTE, Servistall, all the hospitals in the area, DPS and the Airport (NW Terminal) Would you say the drug testing portion of the programs works? Yes, certainly. We had about 6% of the drug tests come back positive 6 years ago, and now we are seeing less than 2. 5% Are certain drugs more common than others? Although I am not privy to the test results, the typical positive tests are mostly positive across the board. Sometimes it is higher for one drug than another. Cocaine and marijuana are pretty popular, unfortunately. Appendix D The United States Constitution The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Appendix E Executive Order 12564 of September 15, 1986 Drug-Free Workplace Attached Works Cited XXXX, XXXX Personal Interview 4/1/09 â€Å"Drug Testing – A Bad Investment†. American Civil Liberties Union. 4/8/09 http://www. aclu. org/drugpolicy/testing/10842res20021021. html. Drug Testing in the Workplace†. ACLU. 3/17/09 < http://www. lectlaw. com/files/emp02. htm>. â€Å"elaws – Drug-Free Workplace Advisor†. US Department of Labor. 4/11/09 http://www. dol. gov/elaws/asp/drugfree/benefits. htm. Gottlieb, Mark. â€Å"Drug Testing – An Industry Standard†. MSG Accountants, Consultants & Business Valuators. 3/17/0 9 http://www. msgcpa. com/general. php? category=Industry+Library&headline=Drug+Testing. â€Å"How Drug Testing Works†. Prevention Not Punishment. 3/16/09 http://www. preventionnotpunishment. org/howsdt. html. Menzo, XXXX PersonalInterview 4/13/09 Richardson, Wendy Telephone Interview, 4/14/09

Need and Success Essay

Success is something that most human always crave for, whether in the past or now. In the long history of human, there are many people who have got resounding success, and they have achieved their success in many ways, with different efforts. In my opinion, it is easier to be a success in the modern life because of these reasons. To begin with the first one, I would like to talk about the learning availability in different periods of time. Though success can be achieved in various ways, but being able to study in a good educating environment is a leading condition to reach the goal. In the past, it is hard for those who are poor or not in high social positions to join schools. The prejudice and the obsessive conception of the society at that time seemed to prevent studying. Being a success at that time was nearly impossible to most ancient people. In contrast, today there are many schools that are opened to all the people who want to study and afford the learning fee, hence the chanc e to get knowledge is much easier, so is the chance to be a success. Another reason I want to mention here is that there are more and more opportunities to get a success today. The world is changing every moment, which means that all positive abilities are needed in various fields. In addition, the society appreciates every ability that is carefully and deeply developed. A person only needs to concentrate on one field or even one skill to success. For example, if in the past, especially in Eastern countries, one needed to be good at both literature and art of fighting to be a mandarin, so today, a person only has to be good at composing poems to succeed; a Mathematic teacher in the past had to know well about both Geometry and Algebra, in contrary, today he who only highly concentrates on Geometry can be a good teacher. The last reason for my statement relates to the strain that the society puts on a person, which forces them to try harder to survive or only to satisfy themselves, this also makes them likely to succeed. Most people want to be the equality to their peers, and that makes them stressful or even embarrassed if they cannot be as successful or as well-off as the rest of the world. â€Å"They can do, why can’t me?† That is a common question that obsesses many persons at the first stage of their way to success. Jealousy is a powerful motivation for the try of many people, and is a root of many cases of success in the world today. To sum up, success has been sought by many human generations, and each person has his own way to get it. The difficulty level of getting success differentiates through times. In my opinion, one needs to try his best according to the condition of the era he is living to get success.

International Trade Theory Essay

7 theories of international trade: 1. Mercantilism 2. Absolute Advantage 3. Comparative Advantage 4. Heckscher-Ohlin Theory 5. Product Life-Cycle Theory 6. New Trade Theory 7. The Theory of National Competitive Advantage 1. Mercantilism -emerged in England in the mid-16th century. The main tenet of mercantilism was that it was in a country’s best interests more than it imported. Consistent with this belief, the mercantilist doctrine advocated government intervention to achieve a surplus in the balance of trade. To achieve this, imports were limited by tariffs and quotas, while exports were subsidized. The flaw with mercantilism was that it viewed trade as a zero-sum game. Zero-sum Game- is one in which a gain by one country results in a loss by another. 2. Absolute Advantage  -In his 1776 landmark book The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith attacked the mercantilist assumption that trade is a zero-sum game. He argued that countries differ in their ability to produce goods efficiently. According to Smith, countries should specialize in the production of goods for which they have an absolute advantage and then trade these for goods produced by other countries. He added that a country should never produce goods at home that it can buy at a lower cost from other countries. Smith demonstrates that, by specializing in the production of goods in which each has an absolute advantage, both countries benefit by engaging in trade. 3. Comparative Advantage -In his 1817 book Principles of Political Economy, David Ricardo of Comparative Advantage Theory said that it makes sense for a country to specialize in the production of those goods that it produces most efficiently and to buy the goods that it produces less efficiently from other countries, even if this means buying goods from other countries that it could produce more efficiently itself. The basic message of this theory is that potential world production is greater with unrestricted free trade than it is with restricted trade. It suggests that consumers in all nations can consume more if there are no restrictions on the trade and that trade is a positive-sum game in which all countries that participate realize economic gains. Three of the assumptions in the comparative advantage model: 1. Resources move freely from the production of one good to another within a country. 2. There are constant returns to scale.  3. Trade does not change a country’s stock of resources or the efficiency with which those resources are utilized. The Samuelson Critique- looks at what happens when a rich country -the United States- enters into a free trade agreement with a poor country -China- that rapidly improves its productivity after the introduction of a free trade regime. 4. Heckscher- Ohlin Theory -Swedish economists Eli Heckscher (1919) and Bertil Ohlin (1933) put forward a different explanation of comparative advantage. They argued that comparative advantage arises from the differences in national factor endowments. Factor endowments meant the extent to which a country is endowed with such resources as land, labor, and capital. Nations have varying factor endowments, and these explain differences in factor costs; specifically, the more abundant a factor, the lower its cost. This theory predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally abundant, while importing goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. This also argues that free is beneficial. But unlike Ricardo’s theory, this theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments, rather than differences in productivity. The Leontief Paradox- a famous study published in 1953 by Nobel Prize winner Wassily Leontief. The result of the study was at variance with the predictions of the Heckscher- Ohlin Theory. 5. The Product Life-Cycle Theory -this was originally proposed by Raymond Vernon in the mid-1960s. This theory tells us that where a new product was introduced is important. This theory suggests that early in their life cycle, most new products are produced in and exported from the country in which they were developed. As a new product becomes widely accepted internationally, production starts in other countries. As a result, the theory suggests, the product may ultimately be exported back to the country of its original innovation. 6. New Trade Theory -this was developed by economist Paul Krugman in 1980s who pointed out that the ability of firms to attain economies of scale might have important implications for international trade. Economies of scale are unit cost reductions associated with a large scale of output. They are a major source cost reductions in many industries. Two important points of the New Trade Theory: ïÆ'Ëœ First, through its impact on economies of scale, trade can increase the variety of goods available to consumers and decrease the average costs of those goods. ïÆ'Ëœ Second, in those industries when the output required to attain economies of scale represents a significant proportion of total world demand, the global market may only be able to support a small number of enterprises. Another theme of the New Trade Theory is that the pattern of trade we observe in the world economy may be the result of economies of scale and first mover advantages. The theory suggests that a country may predominate in the export of a good simply because it was lucky enough to have one or more firms among the first to produce that good. 7. The Theory of National Competitive Advantage: Porter’s Diamond -this was developed by Michael Porter in 1990. For him, the essential task was to  explain why a nation achieves international success in a particular industry. Four attributes that constitute the Porter’s Diamond: ïÆ'Ëœ Factor Endowments- a nation’s position in factors of production such as skilled labor or the infrastructure necessary to compete in a given industry. ïÆ'Ëœ Demand Conditions- the nature of home demand for the industry’s product or service. ïÆ'Ëœ Relating and supporting industries-the presence or absence of supplier industries and related industries that are internationally competitive. ïÆ'Ëœ Firm strategy, structure, and rivalry- the conditions governing how companies are created, organized, and managed and the nature of domestic rivalry. Porter argues that firms are more likely to succeed in industries where the diamond is most favorable. He also argues that the diamond is a mutually reinforcing system. The effect of one attribute is contingent on the state of others. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS The theories discussed have at least three main implications for international businesses: ïÆ'Ëœ Location Implications ïÆ'Ëœ First-mover Implications ïÆ'Ëœ Policy Implications

Canada Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Canada - Essay Example The country is highly developed and has a diversified economy that has its base in plenty of natural resources and tradeship with other developed countries like the United States. The country is a member of various organizations like the United Nations and Commonwealth. The capital city is Ottawa, Ontario. Canada Day is July 1 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2009). According to the 2009 Estimates, the population of Canada is 33,873,357. The percentage of males is 49 percent and that of females is 51 percent. The median age of male is 38.6 years and that of female is 40-4 years. The birth rate is 10.28 births/1,000 population, death rate is 7.74 deaths/1,000 population, the net migration ratio is 5.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population , infant mortality rate is 5.04 deaths/1,000 live births and total fertility rate is 1.58 children born/woman (Statistics Canada, 2009). Canadians are of multiple ethnic origin, the most common being English, French, Scottish, Irish and German. Originally, the land of Canada was occupied by several Aboriginal groups. Christianity is the predominant religion with majority being Catholics (Roman and Old). The main spoken language is English which is used by 78.3 percent people, followed by French (21.7 percent). The literacy rate of the population is 99 percent in both males and females (Statistics Canada, 2009). Canada is a wealthy country. The per capita income is very high. the country is a member of the G8 and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. the market of Canada is mixed comprising of service, mining, agriculture, energy, automobiles and aeronautics,and other manufacturing sectors (Central Intelligence Agency, 2009). The unemployment rate is low. The debt status of the country is also low. The transportation system is excellent with good road and railways networks, 10 international airports and several small airports and several national and international ports (Statistics Canada, 2008). These

Article Review for Benefits of offering childcare in the workplace for Essay

Article Review for Benefits of offering childcare in the workplace for employees - Essay Example The main purpose of the research is to discover the relationship between providing childcare in the workplace and employee productivity. It is a well-written, well organized article with a meaningful research aim, relevant to the field of workplace childcare. However, there is a definite need for a summary review of the literature to provide a current context for the research which examines the need for childcare in the workplace. The author uses a narrative method to describe all the issues that surround the provision of childcare, and also cites examples to illustrate the effects of some of these issues. There is, however, a tendency to mention general points, and the author does not quote from any previous academic research. The article is not sufficiently justified either by statistics or evidence from a questionnaire or survey. There are no facts or figures, and there is no quotation from secondary studies. The author uses a number of points to prove the aforementioned premise. There is, for example, a great benefit for mothers who have babies and very young children. These women can return to work earlier and maintain close contact with their children in their lunch breaks. The children are close at hand, and so this means that there is less absenteeism, because workers can check on their children throughout the day if they are worried about them. Another factor to consider is the issue of lateness. Employees who have to drive their children to a childcare center far away are often late for work. Having a childcare facility in the workplace is much better. Parent and child arrive at the same time and they only have one journey together. There are some disadvantages for the employer in having a childcare center. It is expensive to run, and there are also maintenance costs. Insurance can be expensive for employers. Overall, however, the benefits for employers and employees are greater than the

Outline of Intercultural communication term paper

Outline of Intercultural communication - Term Paper Example However, he is spared and set free. He struggles to fit into the Japanese culture throughout the movie. The need to change culture and hostilities from the Samurai comprises a big part of hardships that Algren faces. Culture intolerance is depicted through the way the Samurai treated Algren when he was captured. They, pioneered by Uijo, label him as barbaric due to his exclusive culture. The Samurai cannot tolerate an infiltration of ‘strange culture’ amongst them. Most Samurai warriors prefer killing the prisoner as dictated by their culture. The Samurai culture does not allow a defeated soldier to live and sees the actions of Algren as unacceptable. There is a lot of culture backed animosity in the film. Uijo is portrayed as the most reserved culturist in the film. He tortures Algren both physically and psychologically to show him that he does not belong. In the infamous episode where Uijo tortures a helpless Algren, the animosity and distrust between cultures is depicted. The film depicts intracultural conflicts and conflicts between cultures. The culture of war and peace is more pronounced. For example, a samurai worrier is supposed to cut off the head of a prisoner of war but Katsumoto chooses to keep Algren alive. Intercultural conflicts are observed in the differences between American and Japanese cultures regarding rule of war, and family. Custom refers to the tradition people apply in their life. The traditions are bound by culture of the society. The Last Samurai is a clear depiction of varying traditions which soon become blended into a hybrid version. This is because the traditions and Algren are used alongside those of the Japanese. Cultural change is seen throughout the film. The changes are initiated by the samurai leader who prefers to keep Algren rather than kill him. According to the Samurai, defeat is not an option and thus Samurai worriers concede by ending their lives, however, this changes when

Immortality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Immortality - Essay Example The influence of immortality has had a basis in human society for thousands and thousands of years. Whereas many people will fantasise about the idea that our physical bodies may surpass their lifespan, it is now universally accepted that no one can live forever (in the physical sense); yet the debate as to whether there is some essence, namely the human soul, that 'lives on' after our physical body has passed away continues to fuel much debate. Thousands of years ago the search for the Philosopher's Stone, a red coloured compound which was believed to greatly prolong human life, as well as turn metal into gold (and thus bring wealth as well as long life), became the holy grail of the medieval world. Buddhism in particular places much emphasis on the belief that our 'essence' moves from creature to creature through reincarnation, that we are reborn into a new body each time our physical one dies, and that our actions in the last body determine which new body we are put into. Christia nity, unlike Buddhism believes that our actions in this life determine whether we spend the rest of eternity in Heaven of Hell. There are many people who will then go on to argue that if a person does not go to Heaven or Hell, they will become trapped in Limbo, wandering 'in between' the astral planes. Christian beliefs seem to have derived a lot from the teachings of Plato, be it that the changed Gods to God. The fact that immortality has played such an integral role in society and religion raises many questions. It begs an answer to the question 'what is motivating people to look for things (namely religious beliefs and actual objects, such as the Philosopher's Stone), that will secure their immortality Why do people want to live forever' Moving on from this question then we can ask 'are religious systems and people in powerful positions manipulating people's belief (particularly in the immortality of the soul, and hence the fate of it after death), in immortality to control their actions' A King, for example in medieval England could use the Church as a vehicle for ensuring that all his subjects obey his every order. Yes, it was believed that a King had 'divine right,' but were these 'rights' believed to be from God or were they a creation of the Monarchy, or an age old belief that the monarchy had corrupted The King could easily have, and did, punish heretics, using their deaths as a warning to others that if they too committed heresy their souls would be damned to hell, because an insult to the King is an insult to God himself.It follows from this that I am sceptical of the idea that the soul will ascend or descend to its Christian resting place. Whilst I too humour the idea of the soul, I find myself drawn towards the idea of reincarnation. Perhaps it is my ego, yet as I sit and think, I cannot help but recall the teachings of Hume. He stated that we could never know our 'true self,'1 be that our soul or something else, because all we can ever experience (Hume was a renowned advocate of Empiricism2), is our perceptions. I am aware that I am constantly in a 'perceptive state' (thinking, reasoning, unconsciously or consciously), I cannot see how

Film analysis Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Film analysis - Movie Review Example The film generally highlights Maria Alvarez, who is a fictional character aged 17, showing her routine reality within the society. This paper will seek to analyze the film by evaluating various aspects of planning, as well as other related issues incorporated and used in Maria Full of Grace. The film Maria Full of Grace illustrates several crucial aspects that are involved in global planning, one of which is the immigration issue. In this case, immigration is defined as the movement of people from their countries of origin in order to settle in countries other than their own (LeGates & Stout 131). While immigration is caused by numerous reasons, one of the most prevalent one in the film has to do with poverty. For example, Maria Alvarez emigrates from Bogota in Colombia to New York and is lured to do so by the promise of being a drug peddler and the money that she will get from the business. Immigration has an essential part to play in urban planning, specifically because the influx of persons that the government fails to account for may lead to a crisis of population. Majority of immigrants exert additional pressure on government public facilities, including schools, hospitals, and community centers (LeGates & Stout 132). Moreover, immigration also pressures government institutions as they have to adapt to the new demands of an increasing population due to immigration. In addition, cultural facilities and other institutions are also forced to become more diversified, as well as expand their capacity in order to suit the population’s needs (Zukin 132). Thus, such influx of immigrants leads to necessary changes in the structure of public institutions in the host country. Immigration is also linked directly to cultural influences as an important factor of planning. Since urban development mainly seeks to control diverse peoples and cultures living in communities around the city, along with the need to ensure maintenance of civility and peace in

Article Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Review - Article Example It is observed that once adults start to learn a language they easily grasp those words which are similar to their language to which they can easily relate too. For example, helicopterowhich is in Spanish and helicopter in English are cognates of each other therefore a Spanish child can easily relate to it.These are known as cross-linguistic cognates. There are also certain cognates which have the same meaning but not the same form. Cognates are easy to comprehend as an individual has a very vague idea about it and can join the dots in order to make a complete picture. "When two languages are close, learners will have access to a large number of cognate words" (Ellis, 1999). A lot of researches in the past are based on cognates and how easily one can understand them as a new language learner as compared to words which are not cognates. Cognates act like a stimuli reinforcing and making understanding easier. At times cognates can be semantically quite like each other, there can be res trictions because of grammar found in one language but not the other which can arouse problems occasionally (Odlin, 1989) . The purpose of this study was to understand whether these cognates act as a potential tool for language learning in Early Language Learners (ELL). The authors view on bilingual is that learning languages is essential and just to make it easier and comprehendible cognates are used. Learning English language is essential therefore emphasis is given on considering it as a second language. The author supports his position by providing examples from previous researches andwork done on the same content taking it a step forward. In order to understanding the effect of cognates in (ELL's) various methods were adopted such as research based questions, participation and features of the language. In this the children were allowed to determine and comprehend cognates with their own estimation independently or with certain support depending on his/her caliber. Initially the re wasn’t any drastic difference but gradually they showed improvement with cognates over noncognates. Different techniques were used such as visual and memory aid, age bar, phonological overlapping between the word and its cognate and the prior knowledge of the word. Direct strategy training was used for maximum benefit of 5th grade (ELL). Receptive and expressive help to develop the proficiency in language as well as the pathology of speech and language. Although there wasn’t any study that targeted the cognate status of language which are developing. It was observed that on cognate language of English the bilinguals performed better than the monolinguals but when it came to noncognates both were equal in performance. Statistics were used in order to show the cognate and noncognate items. It was deduced that Spanish students who were ELL did not merely benefit from L1 or L2 on test which were based on receptive vocabulary. An important issue in the methodology that a rises while using the PPVT is item difficulty. Lastly, it was investigated how fast and precisely children knowing only one language i.e. English could match Spanish words to one of the two pictures. This exercise was performed irrespective of language impairment. It was observed that phonological overlap effected performance and language impairment proved to be beneficial. Earlier nonverbal cognate effects were not considered but now

How Abortion Harms Womens Health Essay Example for Free

How Abortion Harms Womens Health Essay Advocates of legalized abortion downplay or deny the health risks associated with abortion. However, the research indicates that abortion isolates women and can often cause physical and psychological suffering. Physical complications Abortion can cause both short-term and long-term physical complications, and can significantly affect a womans ability to have healthy future pregnancies. Physical complications include cervical lacerations and injury, uterine perforations, bleeding, hemorrhage, serious infection, pain, and incomplete abortion.[3] Risks of complications increase with gestational age and are dependent upon the abortion procedure. [4] Long-term physical consequences of abortion include future preterm birth and placenta previa (improper implantation of the placenta) in future pregnancies.[5] Premature delivery is associated with higher rates of cerebral palsy, as well as respiratory, brain, and bowel abnormalities. One recent large-scale evaluation published in Pediatrics, has concluded that preterm birth is the most frequent cause of infant death in the U.S.[6] Pregnancies complicated by placenta previa result in high rates of preterm birth, low birth weight, perinatal death, and maternal morbidity.[7] While the question of whether abortion can increase the risk of breast cancer is hotly debated, a number of scientific studies have indicated that induced abortion can adversely affect a womans future risk of breast cancer. Further, it has been clearly shown that induced abortion in young women causes the loss of a protective effect from a first, full-term pregnancy which when followed by a delay in child bearing, has the net effect of an increased risk for breast cancer.[8] Physical complications from chemical abortion with the drug RU-486 include hemorrhage, infection, and missed ectopic pregnancy (a potentially fatal complication). Since 2000, at least 8 women have died from RU-486 due to hemorrhage and infection.[9] Psychological complications A pro-choice research team in New Zealand, analyzing data from a 25-year period and controlling for multiple factors both pre- and post-abortion, found conclusively that abortion in young women is associated with increased risks of major depression, anxiety disorder, suicidal behaviors, and substance dependence.[10] This is the most comprehensive, long-term study ever conducted on the issue. Other studies also conclude that there is substantial evidence of a causal association between induced abortion and both substance abuse and suicide.[11] A review of over 100 long-term international studies concluded that induced abortion increases risks for mood disorders enough to provoke attempts at self harm.[12] Researchers have also identified a pattern of psychological problems, known collectively as Post- Abortion Syndrome, in which women may experience depression, anxiety, anger, flashbacks, guilt, grief, denial, and relationship problems. Post-Abortion Syndrome has been identified in research as a subset of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.[13] Further, studies analyzing the effects of induced abortion in adolescents have shown that those who abort reported more frequent problems sleeping, more frequent marijuana use, and an increased need for psychological counseling, when compared to adolescents who give birth.[14] Moira Gaul is director of womens and reproductive health at the Family Research Council. She has a Master of Public Health degree with an emphasis in maternal and child health. Consequences for women There is extensive evidence of physical, mental and emotional consequences for women and their families when pregnant mothers use abortion to end an inconvenient pregnancy. Major Articles and Books Concerning the Detrimental Effects of Abortion reports that in the short term (eight weeks after the abortion), there are numerous indicators of emotional distress: 44 per cent of women who have abortions complain of nervous disorders, 36 per cent have trouble sleeping, 31 per cent regret their decision to abort and 11 per cent have been prescribed psychotropic drugs. But it is the longer-term problems that bear more scrutiny. Using the most conservative estimate of post-abortion syndrome, or PAS, Dr. Brenda Major in the Archives of General Psychiatry in 2000, found 1.6 per cent of women who have an abortion will suffer from PAS, a variant of post-traumatic stress disorder. In Canada, that would mean approximately 50,000 women are suffering emotionally due to their abortions. Dr. Hanna Sà ¶derberg’s studies suggest the number could be closer to 60 per cent. Either way, there are many women with PAS. In Canada, the 1977 Report of the Committee on the Operation of the Abortion Law cited a five-year study in two provinces that found women who had an abortion used medical and psychiatric services much more often than others; in fact, 25 per cent of women who aborted made at least one visit to a psychiatrist compared to just 3 per cent of other women. Alcoholism and drug abuse are higher among women who have abortions than those who don’t. The American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology noted in December 2002 that later alcohol and drug use during subsequent pregnancies could place newborn children at higher risk of congenital defects, low birthweight and even death. In all, there are nearly two dozen studies that link abortion to alcohol and drug abuse. Extrapolating from research conducted by Dr. David Reardon of the Elliott Institute, as many as 5,000 Canadian women will â€Å"begin abusing drugs and/or alcohol as a means of dea ling with post-abortion stress.† In 1996, the British Medical Journal reported that the suicide rate for women â€Å"after an abortion was three times the general suicide rate and six times that associated with birth.† This confirmed earlier studies and has been replicated since. Reardon says â€Å"one reason for the strong abortion-suicide link exists in the fact that in many ways, abortion is like suicide. A person who threatens suicide is actually crying out for help. So are women who contemplate abortion. Both are in a state of despair. Both are lonely. Both feel faced by insurmountable odds.† So it is no wonder that abortion does not solve the perceived problem: that of the inconvenient pregnancy. Post-abortive women are more prone to suicide, cigarette smoking, divorce, low self-esteem, sexual dysfunction, eating disorders and reduced maternal bonding with future children, resulting in child neglect or abuse. Women who have had abortions are more likely to be on public assistance, because their pathologies (promiscuity, inability to form healthy relationships, drug and alcohol abuse) are likely to make them single parents. In 2004, Thomas Strahan, a researcher with the Association of Interdisciplinary Research in the United States, found that abortion hurts women economically: â€Å"The repeated utilization of abortion appears to lead not to economic prosperity or social well-being, but to an increasing feminization of poverty.† But post-abortion health problems are not merely emotional. The Elliott Institute has collated the best available data on the physical risk complications of abortion and it reports that â€Å"approximately 10 per cent of women undergoing elect ive abortion will suffer immediate complications, of which approximately one-fifth (2 per cent) are considered life threatening.† The most common immediate major complications include infection, excessive bleeding, embolism, ripping or perforation of the uterus, anesthesia complications, convulsions, hemorrhage, cervical injury and endotoxic shock. Minor complications include infection, bleeding, fever, second-degree burns, chronic abdominal pain, vomiting, gastro-intestinal disturbances and Rh sensitization. In the Canadian context, that means 10,000 women a year suffer complications and 2,000 face potentially life-threatening major complications. Other problems manifest themselves over time. There are more than 30 studies that show a correlation between abortion and breast cancer, with women who had abortions more likely to get breast cancer. Women also face increased risk of cervical, ovarian and liver cancer. The risk for these four cancers are linked to the unnatural disruption of hormonal changes accompanying pregnancy. Untreated cervical damage increases the chances of getting cervical cancer. Between 2 and 3 per cent of all abortion patients suffer perforation of the uterus; this often leads to complications in subsequent pregnancies, the need for a hysterectomy and other complications, including osteoporosis. Smaller cervical lacerations can also cause problems, including cervical incompetence and subsequent labour complications. Abortion also increases the risk of placenta previa in later pregnancies, which is life-threatening to both mother (excessive bleeding) and unborn child (perinatal death), and increases the chance of fetal malformation. Women who have abortions are more than twice as likely to suffer subsequent labour complications, including premature delivery. Pre-term delivery increases the risk of neo-natal death and handicaps. Abortion increases the risk of ectopic pregnancies and pelvic inflammatory disease, both of which can reduce future fertility or threaten the life of the mother. Recent nation-wide data is unavailable in Canada, but Alberta and Nova Scotia statistics indicate that repeat abortions account for about one-third of all procedures. Repeat aborters vastly increase their risk of complications and this has serious consequences for those who routinely utilize abortion as birth control; it also costs the health care system. Perhaps most worrying is that women who have abortions are more likely to die prematurely. Reardon notes, â€Å"Women who abort are approximately four times more likely to die in the following year than women who carry their pregnancies to term† – and that † women who carry to term are only half as likely to die (pre-maturely) as women who were not pregnant.† That includes accidental deaths, suicides and homicides, among other causes. The evidence that abortion harms women – and their loved ones – is overwhelming. But the harm goes beyond individuals. Societal costs No one knows for sure how much abortion costs taxpayers through the country’s socialized health care system. With the exception of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, which do not cover the entire cost of abortions committed in private facilities, the provinces pay for abortions in both hospitals and free-standing facilities. LifeCanada estimates that the cost just for the surgical abortion procedures is $80 million (an average of $800 multiplied by 100,000 abortions). Because of under-reporting of abortion, there is reason to believe the cost is actually greater. In 1995, the Library of Parliament Research Branch said determining the cost of abortion is a â€Å"complex and inexact process.† But that is only the surgery. The number of follow-up visits for immediate complications is not made public (if tracked at all) and so those costs are unknowable. There is also the cost of long-term problems including fertility treatments, psychiatry and drug/alcohol treatment. There are other costs, as well; that of missing students, consumers and taxpayers. The loss of 100,000 children every year means smaller classrooms and closed schools. In 2005, People for Education, an advocacy group, reported that the rate of school closures in Ontario has more than doubled in recent years. Between 1986 and 1995, an average of 24 Ontario schools were closed every year, but between 1999 and 2005, it was an average of 52 schools per year. Remarkably, that is despite attracting the bulk of the country’s immigrants. The fact is that Canada is an aging country in which many smaller communities and older neighbourhoods no longer have the children and teens to sustain elementary and high schools. According to the Canadian Council on Learning, â€Å"The steepest declines tend to occur in small, rural and remote school districts.† It cites as an example British Columbia, where 10 school districts have seen their enrolments fall by at least 15 per cent since 200 1, seven of which are rural districts with smaller populations. From 1997-2005, 11 of 13 provinces and territories experienced a drop in enrolment, with six of them seeing declines of at least 10 per cent. The problem is worst in Atlantic Canada. Dr. Gerald Galway of the Faculty of Education at Memorial University in St. John’s gave a presentation to the 2009 Atlantic School Boards Conference entitled, â€Å"Where have all the children gone?† In it, he noted that school enrolment in Atlantic Canada has fallen precipitously over the past several decades. While intra-provincial migration accounts for some decline in population, he mostly blames falling fertility rates. Notably, in Newfoundland, enrolment has declined every year since 1971, except in 1984 (with the introduction of Grade 12). In fact, the school-aged population has been cut in half since 1971, from 160,000 to 80,000. Over the long term, more communities will lose their schools and policy makers will have to make difficult decisions on how to provide quality education in sparsely populated areas. There are also ramifications for public finance. Pierre Fortin, a professor of economics at the Università © du Quà ©bec à   Montrà ©al, says there will be â€Å"a marked deterioration of public finances† because of increased health care costs and pension liabilities as the number of seniors grows rapidly and income tax revenues decrease due to fewer workers. The result is fewer taxpayers supporting more retirees. By 2015, there will be more seniors over 65 than children under 15; it is estimated that by 2030, those over 65 will comprise 25 per cent of the population. According to the 2008 documentary The Cost of Abortion, the cumulative financial loss of nearly 50 million abortions in the United States from 1973-2007 was $37 trillion in GDP over the course of 35 years. That’s lost production and lost consumption due to the 50 million missing children and (later) workers. Assuming that Canada would have suffered a proportionate loss, the Canadian GDP over the past four decades would be in the neighbourhood of $4 trillion – or $100 billion per year. That represents about 7 per cent of the current Canadian economy. In other words, the economic activity of a population not decimated by abortion would be equivalent to more than twice the stimulus package Ottawa announced in January. But after 3.2 million abortions over four decades, the missing children translate into missing economic activity. The cheapening of human life The greatest cost imposed on a society that permits abortion is the devaluing of human life and the diminishment of family life. Abortion does not stalk the nation alone; but rather, as part of the larger culture of death. Since the legalization of abortion, contraception, gay sex and divorce in the 1960s, there has been a decline in marital stability, with growth in sexual activity outside marriage and other sexually deviant behaviour and new assaults on human life. There are more ways to chemically eliminate newly conceived life with the abortifacient morning-after pill and abortion drugs like RU-486. With pregnancy made easily avoidable, is it surprising that courts (and later Parliament) ignored the reproductive role of marriage when they redefined the institution to include same-sex partners? In 2003, the Liberal government passed legislation opening the door to destructive embryonic stem cell research, cloning and other scientific experimentation that treats human life as raw m aterial to be harvested and exploited. If inconvenient human life can be eliminated by mothers and doctors, why not create convenient lives for scientists and other researchers? And lastly – though not yet – is euthanasia. Once the principle is established that inconvenient human beings can be killed, the question becomes who’s next. The answer, if the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and Oregon and Washington are harbingers, is the terminally ill, the disabled and the old. Of course, we’ve already had Tracey Latimer and Sue Rodriguez and dozens of others whose names weren’t quite national news. But these are renegades, operating outside the law. Perhaps, though, not for long. Twice in the past four years, Bloc Quebecois MP Francine Lalonde has introduced a private member’s bill to legalize euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. Public opinion leans toward so-called â€Å"mercy killing.† The principle of eliminating inconvenient people is well established. The great corrupter Abortion corrupts every institution that promotes or even countenances it. Two examples are government (and politics) and the medical profession, although one could also look at the failure of religious leadership, the denigration of the law and so much more. As Fr. Alphonse de Valk noted in his 1979 pamphlet The Worst Law Ever, the medical profession didn’t take long to become fanatical in its support for abortion. In fact, de Valk said â€Å"the one group which obviously has suffered most from the 1969 law is the medical profession.† In the 1960s, the Canadian Medical Association lobbied for widening the abortion law to permit abortions to save the life or protect the health of the mother (albeit with a broad understanding of mental and emotional health). By 1973, it endorsed abortion on demand. Two years later, it amended the Hippocratic Oath to remove the reference against abortifacients that had been in place for 2,500 years. In 1977, it attempted to make abortion referrals mandatory, even in cases in which doctors were morally opposed. That battle continues more than three decades later. Over the past 40 years, medical professionals have been harassed over their opposition to abortion and most medical schools screen applicants to keep pro-lifers out. Nurses have been fired, removed from certain duties and refused work because of their pro-life views, as have pharmacists. In order to make â€Å"choice† available to those seeking abortions, the choice of health care professionals to act according to their consciences has been compromised and even excised. Abortion has also corrupted the political process. Parliament fashioned a dishonest and untenable amendment in 1969 – the therapeutic abortion committees which sanctioned the killing of the unborn. The Supreme Court threw out the minimal restrictions in 1988 and ordered Parliament to write a new abortion law. The Mulroney government twice introduced legislation to address the abortion issue, but the limits were once again giant loopholes that would not have restricted abortion. Since then, abortion has been permitted within the vacuum created by the absence of a law. Politicians are scared of the issue. Many provincial politicians refuse to answer questions about abortion, claiming it is a federal matter (which it is as a matter of criminal law, but not as health policy). Many federal politicians hide behind the false notion that the 1988 Morgentaler decision established a right to abortion. (It did not, with only one of seven justices suggesting such a right.) In the 2000 federal election, then-prime minister Jean Chretien declared that Canada had â€Å"social peace† on the issue of abortion; in reality, it was the silence of timorous politicians enforced by a rigid media censorship of any substantive debate on the topic. That censorship is widespread. Since 1995, British Columbia has had a legislated bubble zone prohibiting any pro-life speech near abortion facilities. In 1994, the Ontario government asked for and received a â€Å"temporary† injunction prohibiting pro-life speech near five abortion mills; that injunction remains in place today. In Quebec, a limited bubble zone is in place in several municipalities. Such censorship has moved to university campuses, where pro-life groups are denied club status and pro-life speakers or demonstrators are prevented from making their presentations. To protect abortion from any criticism or resistance, genuine human rights, such as freedom of speech, freedom of association and freedom of conscience, are curbed. Such illiberal and intolerant measures are deemed necessary to defend â€Å"choice.† Conclusion These are but a few of the consequences of a broad abortion licence, a quick overview of the toll of abortion. Sold to a willingly ignorant public as a matter of personal choice, abortion has had terrible consequences for society and, tragically, the women who choose abortion thinking it is a solution to their perceived problems. The enormity of the consequences, one would presume, would lead to a massive re-thinking of unrestricted legal abortion. But instead of either sober reflection or a vigorous debate on abortion’s societal and individual ramifications, there is silence. And more death. And more suffering. Forty more years and millions more deaths are too great a cost for a dearth of necessary leadership to oppose abortion. But someday, these costs and consequences will be too great to ignore. Until then, we will continue to pay in blood, treasure, women’s health and a myriad of other ways. Is Abortion Safe? Psychological Consequences Clinical research provides a growing body of scientific evidence that having an abortion can cause psychological harm to some women. Women who report negative after-effects from abortion know exactly what their problem is, observed psychologist Wanda Franz, Ph.D., in a March 1989 congressional hearing on the impact of abortion. They report horrible nightmares of children calling them from trash cans, of body parts, and blood, Franz told the Congressional panel. When they are reminded of the abortion, Franz testified, the women re-experienced it with terrible psychological pain They feel worthless and victimized because they failed at the most natural of human activities the role of being a mother.[106] The emergence of chemical abortion methods poses a new possibly more devastating psychological threat. Unlike surgical abortions, in which women rarely see the cut up body parts, women having chemical abortions often do see the complete tiny bodies of their unborn children and are even able to distinguish the child’s developing hands, eyes, etc. [107] So traumatic is this for some women that both patients and researchers involved in these studies have recommended that women unprepared for the experience of seeing their aborted children not take the drugs. [108] Long-term psychological implications of this experience have not been studied. Researchers on the after-effects of abortion have identified a pattern of psychological problems known as Post-Abortion Syndrome (PAS). Women suffering PAS may experience drug and alcohol abuse, personal relationship disorders, sexual dysfunction, repeated abortions, communications difficulties, damaged self-esteem, and even attempt suicide. Post-Abortion Syndrome appears to be a type of pattern of denial which may last for five to ten years before emotional difficulties surface. [109] Now that some clinicians have established that there is an identifiable patterns to PAS, they face a new challenge. What is still unknown is how widespread psychological problems are among women who have had abortions. A Los Angeles Times survey in 1989 found that 56% of women who had abortions felt guilty about it, and 26% mostly regretted the abortion.[110] Clinicians’ current goal should be to conduct extensive national research studies to obtain data on the psychological after-effects of abortion.[111] With the growing awareness of Post Abortion Syndrome in scholarly and clinical circles, women with PAS can expect to receive a more sensitive appreciation of the suffering that they endure. Fortunately, a growing network of peer support groups of women who have had abortions offers assistance to women who are experiencing emotional difficulties. Many post-abortive women have also been speaking out publicly about their own abortion experiences and the healing process they went through.. Women or family members seeking information about this particular outreach can contact American Victims of Abortion, 419 7th Street, NW, Suite 500, Washington, D.C., 20004. Physical Consequences after abortion DEATH: According to the best record based study of deaths following pregnancy and abortion, a 1997 government funded study in Finland, women who abort are approximately four times more likely to die in the following year than women who carry their pregnancies to term. In addition, women who carry to term are only half as likely to die as women who were not pregnant.(16) The Finland researchers found that compared to women who carried to term, women who aborted in the year prior to their deaths were 60 percent more likely to die of natural causes, seven times more likely to die of suicide, four times more likely to die of injuries related to accidents, and 14 times more likely to die from homicide. Researchers believe the higher rate of deaths related to accidents and homicide may be linked to higher rates of suicidal or risk-taking behavior.(16) The leading causes of abortion related maternal deaths within a week of the surgery are hemorrhage, infection, embolism, anesthesia, and undiagnosed ectopic pregnancies. Legal abortion is reported as the fifth leading cause of maternal death in the United States, though in fact it is recognized that most abortion related deaths are not officially reported as such.(2)

Thousand One Nights

Thousand One Nights Do you see The Thousand and One Nights as essentially an entertainment? Antoine Galland was the man responsible for the introduction of ‘the thousand and one nights to the western world. This bizarre combination of magic, love, hate, evil and the uncanny did not begin its literary career based on its highly valued scholarly merit but rather on its ability to delight and entertain. This enormous collection of oriental tales whose origins range from Persia to Syria begin with the story of the wife of king Shahryar who in a bid for survival tells him stories in order to survive the night. This element of a tale within a tale runs throughout the whole of the Arabian night tales which at times creates confusion for the reader who finds himself struggling to keep up. Although eighteenth century readers merely saw the tales devoid of any substantial literary value one can see that from the very beginning of this massive volume of tales, certain allegories concerning life are depicted. Scheherazades way of talking herself through danger can be analysed in two different ways. The first being that Scheherazade, is merely depicting the most common and universal human trait when dealing with danger. This could be easily seen as ‘talking ones way out of trouble. The second would be that through Scheherazade, a certain statement is being made regarding the nature of a successful marriage. Communication, it is implied, is the key to the survival of a marriage. With such allegorical implementations regarding life conveyed in only the very beginning of ‘The Thousand and One Arabian Nights it is then only wise that the tales should be read keeping in mind that entertainment may not be their only contribution to the reader. One point that I believe should be made early on regarding ‘the thousand and one nights is that since the tales were introduced during the Victorian period they would have been ‘fumigated thus effectively removing any erotic and highly graphical offensive material from the text .The term ‘Lost in translation would not be out of place in this case, as not only would have offending material been dispersed but certain elements regarding life in the east would have easily become distorted or have lost their value during the process of translation. As in effect this would have created a loss of important material perhaps of high scholarly value. It is then perhaps not surprising that it wasnt till the beginning of the twentieth century that scholars and critics begun to recognise more than just mere entertainment within the pages of the ‘The thousand and one Arabian nights Stories if narrated well enough have always found ground to delight, yet rarely are they told with out the narrator implying a certain meaning. In that sense they become didactic. Scheherazade is not the only story teller within ‘the thousand and one tales. Many characters within the tales contribute towards this didactic theme. An example would be Scheherazades own father the Wazir who in an effort to warn his daughter against the foolishness of marrying the Sultan begins to tell the tale of ‘The bull and the ass. These extravagant tales that are a resort of wanting to deliver a certain kind of message are similar to those used in fairytales. One could suppose these to be the oriental fairytales equivalent and as heavy in social history as the western fairytales. Also by allowing different characters of different backgrounds to deliver these messages there is an underlying idea that all people, regardless of who they are have a contribution to make in this life. This is an example of how these Arabian tales are able to not only represent life and the experiences that surround life itself but to do so whilst at the same time managing to bypass any cultural and linguistic boundaries. These messages become universal, addressing all important aspects of human life such as love, death good and evil and the constant search for immortality. The repeative development of these values throughout the subsequent tales within the Arabian nights only helps to strengthen and highlight the weight they command on every aspect of human life. Other than parallel life the Arabian tales are rich in material regarding the life and beliefs of the Arabic world. The oppression of women is shown in the sultans ability to wed a virgin each day and then kill her in the morning. His actions are not judged nor to create any kind of opposition whatsoever showing both the immense power that was placed in the hands of the king whereas at the same time also portraying the notion that the fates and lives of women lay in the hands of their husbands. Even so characters like Scheherazade are crucial at conveying that a woman was not completely powerless .A womans power lay in her cunning and ability to successfully manoeuvre and shape instances so that to achieve her own goal. Scheherazades ability to remain alive night after night is a prime example of this. If we were to consider tales such as ‘The bull and the ass certain other motifs become apparent. There seems to be an ongoing repetition throughout the Arabian tales concerning the theme of wit. This would point to the belief that wit and cunning were valued highly as characteristic elements, able to allow survival in the cruelty people faced everyday in their lives. Such beliefs are shown through the advice the ass gives to the bull. The ass begins by advising the bull to feign madness in order to escape the harshness of the plough. Yet once the ass realises his actions have merely jeopardised his own happiness he reverts to wit in order to save his skin. Later on the words of the cockerel are crucial in saving the merchants own life as he realises his wifes stubbornness in wanting to know his secret will only lead to his demise. Other than the importance of cunning and wisdom there is also numerous religious references leading to the conclusion that religion was carried great value in the Arabic world. As the religious references are many and at times devised of lengthy quotations this would also point towards the notion that not only did religion feature daily in the Arabic world but that most people had an extensive knowledge of it, in fact so extensive that they were able to quote extracts on the spot. The ‘A thousand and one nights are written in a simple language, this leads me to believe that the religious proverbs must have been widely known and not restricted to ‘holy or ‘religious men. Such was then the hold of religion upon the eastern Arabic world. All the above themes as well as others can be seen through another tale within ‘A thousand and One nights this being ‘The Fisherman and the Jinni. Cunning and wisdom again are emphasised with the life of the fisherman relying on his abilities to outwit the Jinni. ‘This is a Jinni; and I am a man to whom Allah hath given a passably cunning wit, so I will now cast about to compass his destruction by my contrivance and by mine intelligence; even as he took counsel only of his malice and his forwardness Within the above quote the importance of intelligence is clearly seen as is also the theme of how brute force and malice are not always effective in overcoming another. Something else that can be perceived throughout the ‘Tale of the Fisherman and the Jinni is the same notion seen through Scheherazade, that good communication skills were regarded as vital within the Arabic world. So vital, that they could have secured your life. Communication and the at of language is a characteristic that sets us above the mere existence of beasts, for the ability to structure speech goes hand in hand with the ability to think. The themes of good and evil as also that of kindness and cruelty are seen clearly within his tale. There is the underlying message through the Jinnis harshness that cruelty breeds cruelty. The injustice and cruelty that the Jinni suffered in being imprisoned in a jar for thousands of years turns him cruel. This could be parallel to the belief that it is society in itself that breeds evil rather than a person being born evil. Something also seen in King Shahryar who is seen as a noble honest king at the beginning of the tales only to turn harsh and cruel once he experiences hurt and injustice. With such elements as the themes of justice, honour ,good and evil and the ability of the ‘A thousand and one Nights to parallel life in itself we cannot suppose them to be merely delightful entertainment for they provide much more than that. They are as mentioned before the equivalent of the western fairytales as they incorporate all the elements expected in a fairytale as is simple language, morality and magic they are also proof that the need for man to teach and relate morality and certain life values was not limited to what was supposed the western ‘civilised world but was a reoccurring phenomenon that stretched across the globe. Bibliography Primary Reading Sir Richard F. Burton, Tales from 1001 Arabian nights, Ed translated by F. Burton, Jaico Publishing house

Reading Intervention Programme

Reading Intervention Programme Effects of an Out-of-school Intervention Program on Reading Ability and Attitude in Low-achieving First-grade Students Abstract This study, conducted at *****, proposes instituting a before- or after-school program to address the needs of struggling first-grader readers. Biweekly intervention sessions, lasting 30 minutes each, will take place from early September through May. Using individualized instruction targeting deficiencies in individual student skills and a balanced literacy approach, data will be collected to determine the effectiveness of the program and student attitudes about reading. Parent attitudes and participation in their children’s learning will also be explored. Data will then be compared to the average gains made by typical first-grade students. I anticipate these sessions will have a positive effect on student learning and attitudes, and that participants will make slightly greater gains than typical first graders. Introduction Background/School Information In the fall of 2008, I will begin my third year as a first-grade teacher at ******. According to the 2007 School Report Card (2007), the **** student population includes 335 students in kindergarten through fifth grade. It is a diverse school (51.9% White, 2.1% African American, 34.0% Hispanic, and 11.9% Asian/Pacific Islander). 17.6% of students are from low-income families and 21.2% have limited English skills. The average size of my class over the past two years has been 25 students, with over half (14 last year) speaking a second language (including Italian, Polish, Serbian, Spanish, Tagal, and Urdu) at home. Some parents refuse bilingual or ELL services in favor of a regular classroom placement. Students begin the year at many different literacy levels. The majority of students make excellent progress with the current literacy program (Harcourt Trophies). While most of the students who attend kindergarten in our district have mastered their letter names and successfully integrat e their phonemic awareness skills with phonics instruction, there are a few students each year that struggle with these skills and have not mastered our basic kindergarten sight words. Often students who come from other school districts are even further behind. Some parents of these students have admitted to spending little or no time reading with them at home, either because the child is reluctant to work with the parent, lack of time, or because their own literacy skills may be lacking. My Philosophy/Past Efforts I believe it is my responsibility to ensure that every student learns the necessary skills to become a successful reader and to develop a love of reading. I also assume that every student will learn if expectations are high. I believe in using a balanced approach to literacy instruction (Tompkins, 2003), using phonemic awareness, phonics, and literacy instruction which incorporates both reading (shared and independent) and writing. In searching for a way to reach struggling students and help them improve their emerging reading skills, I began a biweekly guided reading group during lunch during the 2006-07 school year for four struggling students. The students were tested using AIMSweb ® and made considerable improvement between January when the program was implemented and the end of the year. One student’s reading fluency increased from ten to 33 wpm, an increase of 330% in four months. Although the lunch hour was a convenient time to work with the students, it was difficult to ensure they were focusing on the lesson and finishing their meals at the same time. I have considered the advantages and disadvantages of working with them either before or after school. While an after-school program will afford more structured time to better meet their needs, a before-school program might ensure better attendance (***, personal communication, July 7, 2008). **** has offered both a before-school remediation program with fourth graders and an after-school book club with second graders, noted that students seemed more focused in morning sessions (*****, personal communication, July 14, 2008). Before implementation, I will survey parents to determine which format best suits their schedule. Role of the Researcher As an active participant and researcher in this study, I will be working directly with four to six of my lowest-achieving first-grade students. Individual student needs will be targeted through word activities, shared reading, independent reading, guided reading, and writing activities. Area of Focus The purpose of this study is to describe the effects of a biweekly out-of-school intervention and guided reading program on reading ability and student attitude about reading in low-achieving first-grade students. Research Questions My focus question is: How will implementing an out-of-school intervention and guided reading program affect reading ability and student attitude about reading in low-achieving first-grade students? I plan on implementing this program at the beginning of the 2008-09 school year and continuing it through the end of May. I hope to answer the following questions through this action research project: How will biweekly out-of-school intervention and guided reading sessions affect reading fluency? How will these sessions affect student reading comprehension? What effect will this program have on student attitudes about reading and school in general? What effect will these sessions have on student writing ability? What effect will this program have on parent attitudes about their child’s reading ability and education in general? Will parent involvement in working with their children be affected by their participation in the program? Key Terms AIMSweb ® – â€Å"a scientifically based, formative assessment system that informs the teaching and learning process by providing continuous student performance data and reporting improvement to parents, teachers, and administrators to enable evidence-based evaluation and data-driven instruction† (AIMSweb ® Organization Website, n.d.). Analytical Reading Inventory (ARI) – â€Å"The ARI is an individually-administered assessment conducted during a one-on-one reading conference. It is administered periodically to students in grades 4-8. Results are used to determine a student’s instructional reading level, guide teachers in planning classroom instruction, identify appropriate supports and interventions, and document progress over time.† (â€Å"Student Testing,† n.d.) Differentiate – â€Å"To use differentiated instruction – an approach to teaching essential content in ways that address the varied learning needs of students with the goal of maximizing the possibilities of each learner† (ASCD Website, n.d.). Fluency – â€Å"Reading smoothly, quickly, and with expression† (Tompkins, 2003, p. 397). Grapheme – â€Å"A written representation of a sound using one or more letters† (Tompkins, 2003, p. 398). Phoneme – â€Å"A sound; it is represented in print with slashes (e.g., /s/ and /th/)† (Tompkins, 2003, p. 399). Phonemic awareness – â€Å"The ability to manipulate the sounds in words orally† (Tompkins, 2003, p. 399). Phonics – â€Å"Instruction about phoneme-grapheme correspondences and spelling rules† (Tompkins, 2003, p. 399). Running Records – While observing individual children as they read aloud, â€Å"teachers calculate the percentage of words the child reads correctly and then analyzes the miscues or errors† (Tompkins, 2003, p. 386). Effects of an Out-of-school Intervention Program on Reading Ability and Attitude in Low-achieving First-grade Students Literature Review Introduction Students today enter school at very different developmental and readiness levels. First grade is a year of exciting growth, presenting new challenges for developing children – from the all-day format to learning how to read. While many students adapt to the all-day schedule and flourish in the first-grade classroom, some are not able to keep up, slowly falling further and further behind their classmates. Teachers often struggle to differentiate instruction to meet the diverse needs of their students. They also look for ways to ensure that every student is functioning at or above grade level, particularly since the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was enacted in January, 2001 (Huncosky, 2004). Because time is limited during the school day and class sizes are often large, many teachers turn to after-school hours to remediate instruction for their struggling students (Brown, 2008; Davis-Allen, 2008; Huncosky; Little Hines, 2006; Saddler Staulters, 2008). Their studies show varied results in gains among the lowest-achieving students. What is a struggling student? Davis-Allen (2008) uses the term â€Å"at-risk,† describing these students as â€Å"strangers to the behaviors and values of the middle-class (as cited in Davis-Allen, 2008). Students were asked to participate in her study because of prior substandard academic achievement (Davis-Allen). To meet Huncosky’s (2004) criteria, students were functioning below grade level in reading or failing to turn in homework. Reading Recovery uses an assortment of tests given at the onset of first grade to target the lowest-achieving students for their 12-20 week program (MacKenzie, 2001). In simpler terms, struggling students are those who, academically, are not performing at grade level. As I begin my third year teaching first grade at Wesley School in Addison, Illinois, and as I reflect on ways to improve learning for all my students, I have found that the majority of my students have been well-prepared for first grade, with a strong background in phonemic awareness and a firm grasp of phonics. They already understand the grapheme-phoneme connection and are ready to begin putting letters and sounds together to make words. Even those who may be a little behind their classmates developmentally catch up quickly and are usually reading at grade level by the middle of the year. Unfortunately, each year I have had three or four students that slowly lose ground, either because they lack a solid background in literacy, have difficulty attending to the daily lessons, or have potential learning disabilities which have not yet been diagnosed. As the work gets progressively more difficult, these students struggle with the district’s literacy curriculum. The second grade teachers report that these low-achieving students sometimes continue to struggle throughout second grade (C. Walters, personal communication, July 14, 2008). This led me to wonder if we were to target the lowest students right from the beginning of the year, would this lead to better outcomes for them in first grade and beyond? According to C. Wartman (personal communication, July 7, 2008), principal at Wesley School, we often take a wait-and-see approach in first grade. As stated earlier, many low students are successful with the curriculum as we differentiate to their needs in the typical classroom; thus, the wait-and-see approach works for them. But for those few who quickly fall behind, the wait-and-see approach is not acceptable. My goal through my action research project is to find a way to reach these students before they fall too far behind their peers. These past two years I have had the assistance of a reading aide for 2-1/2 hours per week. At the beginning of the 2006-07 year, she led extra guided reading sessions with all of my students through a push-in model. It quickly became clear that four students needed extra remediation; therefore, she began pulling them out three times a week. This offered several disadvantages, the most significant being they missed valuable classroom instruction and may have felt disconnected from their classmates. How, then, might I find a way to fill in the gaps in their education without taking them out of the classroom for remediation? My first thought was to institute an out-of-school program. Relevant Literature Very little research is available on out-of-school programs for first graders. Perhaps this is because it is already a great adjustment for them to be in school all day, and it may be difficult for them to add an extra half hour or more to their already demanding schedule (C. Wartman, personal communication, July 7, 2008). Parents may not be available, particularly those who work, to drop their children off early or pick them up after the school bus has already departed (C. Wartman). A study by Huncosky (2004) addressed at-risk students in first through third grades through a ten-week, biweekly, after-school reading and math program (Huncosky). Students were selected for this program either because they were below grade level in reading achievement or because they failed to complete homework (Huncosky). One teacher who worked with students in this program commented, â€Å"It is not a program to narrow the huge gap. It’s a program to help kids who are ready to be helped† (Huncosky, p. 14). Other teachers believed that the students accepted in the program should be able to work well on their own and in small groups (Huncosky). Most low-achieving first graders, because they are not yet able to work independently, do not meet these criteria. Huncosky (2004) did not include a pre- or post-assessment, instead relying on teacher questionnaires to evaluate the effects of the program. The literacy activities used varied from teacher to teacher, and she does not state whether or not efforts were made to address the needs of individual students (Huncosky). The focus of the study was on student attitudes about reading, rather than on assessing their performance (Huncosky). Qualitative data (teacher questionnaire addressing reading gains) of the survey showed mixed responses as to improvement in reading ability in these students. With a teacher-to-student ratio of 8:1 and inconsistent teaching approaches, this format would not work well with struggling first-g rade students. This study indicates a need for structure and consistency in instruction, lessons which address specific skills in which individual students are deficient, and small teacher-to-student ratios in order to meet the needs of low-achieving first-grade students. Reading Partners I reviewed literature on two programs that include one-on-one instruction with elementary students. The first program, Reading Partners, used trained tutors (master’s degree students) who implemented consistent interventions with at-risk fourth grade readers in an inner-city elementary school. The tutors were trained to: â€Å"(a) review past material; (b) introduce or extend a strategy; (c) read a new selection; (d) engage in related writing; and (e) provide a related, supplemental activity to extend or enrich the learning† (Saddler et al., 2008, p. 204). Sessions were held twice a week and were 60 minutes long. An Analytical Reading Inventory (ARI) (cited by Saddler et al., 2008, p. 205) and interest inventories were used to assess student reading and comprehension ability and to form bonds between the tutors and tutees (Saddler et al.). The average participant gained at least one grade level in reading, along with other intangible benefits, such as a more positive attitude and interest in reading (Saddler et al.). Reading Recovery Another very successful program that addresses struggling first graders is Reading Recovery. According to their website, â€Å"Reading Recovery is a highly effective short-term intervention of one-to-one tutoring for low-achieving first graders† (â€Å"Reading Recovery,† n.d.). The program targets the four lowest first-grade readers for daily half-hour one-on-one sessions with teachers trained in the Reading Recovery program format (â€Å"Reading Recovery†). Once a student is reading at grade level (after an average of 12-20 weeks), he/she graduates from the program and becomes part of a literacy booster group (MacKenzie, 2001). The Reading Recovery organization reports that 75% of struggling readers are reading at grade level after completion of the program, while the remaining 25% are recommended for further evaluation and remediation (â€Å"Reading Recovery†). Both the Reading Partner and Reading Recovery programs reinforce the positive academic benefits of one-on-one and small group lessons to assist low-achieving students to make and maintain gains in their literacy development. It also demonstrates the need for continued small-group reinforcement once students are working at grade level. Students with High Reading Potential Next, I turned to literature to find out what other types of programs are being offered and which are the most successful. Little and Hines (2006) studied the effects of a 12-week, biweekly, after-school reading program on students in third through sixth grade. The study targeted students with â€Å"high reading potential† (Little et al., 2006, p. 11), offering book talks, read-alouds, and supported independent reading, followed by choices of literacy activities. As part of the 90-minute sessions, students were encouraged to read books independently that would be challenging and of interest to them (Little et al.). The goals of the program were to build reading fluency and to make reading more pleasurable (Little et al.). Although the study showed varied results, students in third and fifth grade made above average weekly gains in reading fluency compared to a national sample (Little et al.). One sixth grade student with a â€Å"negative attitude† (Little et al., p. 29) had a 40-point decline between pre- and post-test scores, which adversely affected the average scores of the 15 sixth-grade students in the study (Little et al.). This study demonstrated the benefits of teacher read-alouds, self-selected independent reading, and varied literacy activities. It also indicated a positive correlation between students in an after-school program who read books at their instructional level and weekly reading fluency gains. 21st Century Community Learning Center Initiative Brown (2008) studied a 21st Century Community Learning Center Initiative (CCLC) after-school program over three years, following the progress of 20 at-risk students from second through fourth grade in rural Georgia. She discusses the many benefits of a structured after-school program, such as improved attendance rates, attitude, homework completion, social skills, and student aspirations (as cited in Brown, 2008). Brown used yearly Criterion-Referenced Competency Test (CRCT) reading scores to assess student progress. The students’ scores improved between second and third grade (+1.85 points), but decreased between third and fourth (-23.85 points) for an overall decrease of 22 points. Report card grades in reading also decreased 2.9 points between second and fourth grades. While this may, on the surface, seem discouraging, these students outperformed the average student at the school, whose CRCT scores decreased 34 points over this same period. With no control group, we cannot ascertain how these students compare to similar at-risk students who did not participate in the after-school program. Because program participants outperformed the average student, I believe the program was successful for these students, and it demonstrates the benefits of out-of-school remediation for at-risk primary students. After-school Programs and NCLB In 2003, the U.S. Congress, seeing a need for quality after-school programs to ensure that every child is successful, set aside $993.5 million for after-school programs as part of the NCLB Act (as cited in Brown, 2008; Davis-Allen, 2008). Recent literature shows mixed reviews of the effectiveness of these programs. One reason for this may be that many of the studies do not have a control group; thus, it becomes difficult to determine whether after-school programs are truly effective. Many students, despite enrollment in after-school programs, are still achieving below grade level, but without these programs, they may possibly have fallen even further behind. Because the students have made greater gains than the norm in most of these studies, I believe they demonstrate that extra remediation sessions, particularly those that target specific deficiencies in individual students and include one-on-one and small group remediation, are effective in achieving success for struggling students . Conclusion The review of existing literature has led to some important components I will include to remediate instruction to my struggling first-grade students. To ensure optimum attendance, I will first survey parents to find a before- or after-school time that will fit their weekly schedule. Through pre-assessment and teacher observations, instruction will be targeted to individual student needs. At the beginning of the year, we will work on phonemic awareness, phonics, and sight words to address deficiencies in student reading readiness. Future sessions will follow a consistent schedule, including word work in targeted areas, teacher read-alouds, independent reading, guided reading, and writing. Guided reading at student instructional levels will be conducted in small groups of four or fewer students. Time will be spent each session working one-on-one with students or having the students read one-on-one with me, in order to assess their individual needs. This one-on-one time will also be use d to assess student progress through running records, AIMSweb ® testing, and/or reading inventories. In order to incorporate these strategies, the biweekly sessions will be limited to four students with each period lasting 30 minutes. If necessary, a third weekly session may be added to meet the needs of these emerging readers. I will track their progress and make adjustments to the curriculum depending on student progress. Parent involvement is a major component in student learning outcomes, particularly in struggling students where an â€Å"extra boost makes all the difference in the world† (H. Byers, personal communication, July 14, 2008). To encourage their participation, I will use parent surveys and home reading logs to determine and track parent involvement in working with their children. Data Collection Methodology 1. My reading aide will administer AIMS Web tests biweekly to assess student progress in fluency. This will serve as an objective assessment (quantitative data) of whether my intervention program is successful and will be one method of tracking student progress. 2. I will also assess using running records once or twice a month. Since I will administer these assessments myself, they will give me a good indication of what areas to target in our before-school sessions. I will use the results (quantitative data) to track student progress and adjust instruction. 3. During one-on-one and small group guided reading time, I will use a checklist (and take notes) to determine if students are able to read with expression. This will be a third indicator (quantitative and qualitative data) of reading progress to document in my study. 4. I will collect data on individual student reading comprehension using three methods: 4a. The weekly end-of-story tests (quantitative) will be an immediate indicator of whether students are able to read using recently-taught skills and comprehend what they are reading. The ability to write an answer the open-ended question at the end of the test will also be used to assess student progress (qualitative data). 4b. Once students develop basic reading skills, I will assess each student using a reading inventory – either the John’s Basic Reading Inventory (BRI) or a Qualitative Reading Inventory (QRI) to target areas that need remediation. This will be used on an as-needed basis, depending on student progress. It will also be used to track the success of the remediation program (quantitative and qualitative data). 4c. The third comprehension assessment will be in the form of unfamiliar reading passages, followed by a series of questions. These will most likely be introduced during the second half of the year, and will provide quantitative data to assess student comprehension by recording the number of correct answers. 5. I will also use several surveys to assess student and parent attitudes. These surveys will include closed- and open-ended questions and will be given at the beginning and end of the year to determine if participation in the program has changed student/parentattitudes, interest, and motivation to read. 6. I will use teacher observations (in the form of a Likert scale) to assess student attitudes, interest, and motivation in reading. 6. Another survey will be used to assess parent involvement in literacy activities with their children. By using pre- and post-survey data, I will discover if parent involvement is affected by student participation in my remediation program. Call for Action References 2007 School Report Card (2007). Retrieved July 7, 2008 from http://www.asd4.org/docs/srcards/Wesley.pdf. AIMSweb ® Website (n.d.). Retrieved July 16, 2008 from http://www.aimsweb.com. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development ASCD Website (n.d.) Retrieved July 16, 2008 from http://www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/menuitem.3adeebc6736780dddeb3ffdb62108a0c/. Brown, G. D. (2008). An analysis of an after-school program in a small, rural elementary school in Georgia. (Ph.D., Capella University, Minneapolis, MN). Retrieved July 5, 2008, from Dissertations Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 3297914). Davis-Allen, Y. R. (2008). Impacts of an after-school program on student achievement for at-risk children. (D.Ed., Capella University, Minneapolis, MN). Retrieved July 7, 2008, from Dissertations Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 3289497). Huncosky, K. (2004). Closing the achievement gap at Huegel Elementary School: What can I do? Madison, WI: Huegel Elementary School. Little, C. A., Hines, A. H. (2006). Time to read: Advancing reading achievement after school. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18(1; 1), 8-33. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ753969) Retrieved July 5, 2008, from ERIC database. MacKenzie, K. K. (2001). Using literacy booster groups to maintain and extend Reading Recovery success in the primary grades. Reading Teacher, 55(3), 222. Reading Recovery: Basic Facts (n.d.). Retrieved July 12, 2008, from http://www.readingrecovery.org/reading_recovery/facts/index.asp. Saddler, B., Staulters, M. (2008). Beyond tutoring: After-school literacy instruction. Intervention in School Clinic, 43(4; 4), 203-209. Student Testing on San Diego Unified School District Website (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2008, from http://www.sandi.net/indices/testscores.html. Tompkins, G. E. (2003). Literacy for the 21st century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Appendix A Beginning of Year Parent Survey – Page 1 Appendix A Beginning of Year Parent Survey – Page 2 Appendix B End of Year Parent Survey Appendix C Beginning of Year Student Questionnaire Appendix D End of Year Student Questionnaire – Page 1 Appendix D End of Year Student Questionnaire – Page 2 Appendix E Checklist Appendix F Interview Protocol 1.Do you think a before- or after-school format is better suited for first grade remediation? 2.How do you think an after-school literacy and guided reading program might affect struggling first grade students? 3.How would you decide which students should be included in an after-school program? 4.How many first graders should be included? Should there be a limit? 5.What strategies would you recommend to help these students? 6. If is always helpful to have reinforcement at home. What methods can be used to encourage parents to read with their children? 7.How do you think parent involvement affects student outcomes? 8.How do you think student involvement in an after-school program would affect parent involvement in reading to their children? 9. How do you think technology can be used in remediation programs? 10.How effective do you think â€Å"reading buddies† are to help first graders improve reading skills? 11.How long do you think each session should last? What do you think the optimal size of each guided reading group should be? What literacy skills are lacking in second grade students at the beginning of the year? How might the leveled books that will be available this fall be used in an after-school program? Are there any leveled books available to be sent home with the students? Very little literature exists on after-school programs for first graders. Why do you think that might be? 17.Are there any recommendations you might have for this program? Appendix A Triangulation Matrix Research Questions Data Source 1 2 3 1. How would two extra literacy/Guided Reading sessions a week affect reading fluency in struggling readers? AIMSweb ® Pre- and Post-Tests Running Records (Ongoing) Teacher Observations/ checklist 2. How would these sessions affect student reading comprehension? End-of-Story Tests Comprehension Passage Quizzes Reading Inventory 3. What effect would this program have on student writing ability? Writing Portfolio End-of-Story Tests Teacher Observations 4. What effect would this program have on student attitudes about reading and school in general? Pre-Survey